LOCAL HISTORY: JEAN JAURES, POLITICIAN AND WRITER WHOSE OPPOSITION TO FRANCE’S DECLARATION OF WAR IN 1914 COST HIM HIS LIFE.
Gavin Porter gives an account of the life and achievements of the politician and writer Jean Jaures, the centenary of whose assassination was 31 July 1914.
JAURES’ EARLY YEARS
Jaures was born at Castres in the Tarn in 1859. He came from a petit bourgeois background and had the highest marks of those seeking entry to the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris in 1878. He was third in the teacher training degree for philosophy in 1881. (Philosophy is widely taught in French secondary schools.) As a result he became a philosophy teacher in a lycee in Albi in 1881.
FIRST STEPS IN POLITICS: FROM REPUBLICANISM TO SOCIALISM
A republican at the start of his political career, Jaures was the Deputy for Castres from 1885 to 1889, when he was not re-elected. He then became a teacher at the faculty of philosophy at Toulouse University. Gradually he came to believe that socialism was the best way forward for France and for other countries.
His commitment to socialism was crystallized by his support for miners striking at Carmaux in 1892. The mine owners had sacked an employee, who was an elected councillor in local government, for taking time off work to attend to municipal business. The miners went on strike in sympathy and Jaures championed their cause. They were sacked and went on to set up their own enterprise with Jaures’ support.
Jaures was elected socialist Deputy for Carmaux in 1893 and remained a Deputy till his death in 1914 (with the exception of the years 1898-1902). He was a brilliant orator.
SUPPORT FOR CAPTAIN DREYFUS
From 1894 to 1906 France was rocked by a political and judicial scandal called the Dreyfus Affair. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer, was wrongly convicted of spying for Germany. After some initial hesitation, Jaures vigorously supported the campaign to clear Dreyfus’ name and to establish his innocence. He published evidence of Dreyfus’ innocence (Les Preuves) in La Petite Republique, a weekly socialist journal. Dreyfus was granted a pardon in 1899 and fully exonerated in 1906. Jaures’ support for Dreyfus cost him his parliamentary seat in 1898, although he regained it in 1902.
FOUNDING L’HUMANITE
1904 saw Jaures found the daily newspaper L’Humanite. This was initially the newspaper to express the views of the socialist party. In 1920 it became the mouthpiece of the Communist party and it still is today. Jaures edited a Socialist History of Contemporary France and he himself wrote the volumes devoted to the French Revolution during 1901 to 1903.
1899 -1905 – LE BLOC DES GAUCHES
From 1899 to 1905, a political grouping uniting radicals and socialists governed France. Jaures became fully aware that a capitalist society had strong resistance to any proposals for change. Concerned by the rise of nationalism and anti-semitism in France, he made the defence of the republic his prime objective and supported the government of Waldeck-Rousseau, who was the first President of the Council to include a socialist (Alexandre Millerand) in his Government as Minister of Trade and Industry.
Jaures and his socialist party supported the Government of Combes (1902-1905), which passed the legislation separating churches and religions from the state and making the French state a lay state. However, the impetus for social reforms was lost and Jaures, elected vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1902, was not re-elected in 1904.
While recognizing the existence of the class struggle, Jaures felt that humanity was one and that the left should involve itself in the day-to-day politics of the republic working towards a democratic and non-violent revolution. This meant cooperating with so-called bourgeois political parties. Guesdes, who led the Marxist wing of the socialists, did not share this view. In 1904 the Congress of the Second International voted for Guesdes’ views. The elections showed popular feeling to be the opposite with 31 deputies supporting Jaures and 12 supporting Guesdes.
1905-14 — SEEKING TO PREVENT WAR
Jaures had long taken a lively interest in the conduct of relations between France and other countries. He spent the last 10 years of his life striving to prevent an outbreak of war. He was preoccupied with all threats to maintaining peace particularly during the Balkan wars of 1912-13. In 1910 he drafted an important law dealing with the army for submission to the French parliament. The draft recommended an organisation of national defence based on military preparation of the whole nation. He led a vigorous campaign against a law, which established compulsory military service for three years and was passed by Parliament in 1913.
As the outbreak of the First World War loomed ever nearer, Jaures’ opposition to war being declared made him unpopular among French nationalists. He was assassinated at the Café du Croissaint, 146 Rue Montmartre in Paris on 31 July 1914 just three days before the outbreak of war. Crowds gathered outside the cafe to pay tribute. Ironically the assassination of Jaures facilitated the rallying of the left —including the socialists — to support for the war.
THE LEGACY OF JEAN JAURES
At the end of the First World War in reaction to the widespread loss of life it had caused and in recognition of Jaures’ opposition to it, many French communes named streets and squares after him. A station on the Parisian metro also bears his name.
The influence of Jaures in French life and politics has been, and continues to be, considerable. French politicians with views as diverse as Nicholas Sarkozy and Francois Hollande have quoted him in their speeches. Jaures believed that the organization of society on capitalist lines need not be abandoned and that the middle classes (bourgeoisie) could participate in social progress in the interest of society as a whole. With the middle classes assuming increasing importance in today’s French society these views remain valid.
The beautiful village of Puycelsi, photographed by Nev Stott.Cup of tea tour
We recently visited the fortified village of Puycelsi, where we were invited over for a cup of tea. We later had the opportunity to wander around with a local expert on the village and take some pictures.Puycelsi is listed as one of "Les Plus Beaux Villages de France" and while meandering around the streets it is clear to see why as there has been extensive renovation works to many of the old properties here. There are also some great views over the Grésigne Forest and Vère valley from the village as it is perched high up on a rocky plateau.
There is a walk around the ramparts where you can discover places such as Château des Capitaines Gouverneurs or the St Roch chapel with a statue of St Roch outside, complete with his dog which is also holding a baguette in its mouth, rumour has it that is why they bake French bread with such a hard crust. Please note the date on the plinth of the statue refers to the age of the Chapel and not the birth date and death of St Roch as that really would be a miracle. For the energetic you can extend your walk into the Grésigne Forest viewing the regional centre for ancient fruit trees on the way. This centre has 750 varieties of fruit tree and over 100 grape varieties from all over the world.
Another location I wanted to see was the Church of St Corneille which has recently held a concert to raise funds for its renovation. Typical for a medieval church, is the blue ceiling which is ornately decorated, I believe the colour blue symbolises the sky and the Gothic designs of this church do draw the eye upwards. The pictures included are one of the ceiling and the other is of the interior. You might think that there are ghosts on the right but these are other visitors to the church and the ghostly effect is due to the long exposure of the shot and them moving around.
Nev
LOCAL HISTORY: FREDERIC MISTRAL FOUNDER OF FELIBRIGE THE MOVEMENT THAT REVIVED OCCITAN
Gavin Porter gives an account of the life and achievements of the poet Frederic Mistral, the centenary of whose death is 25 March 2014. Along with six others, Mistral founded Felibrige a movement designed to revive the Occitan language. His poetry is considered the finest written in Occitan.
MISTRAL’S EARLY YEARS
Mistral was born at Mallane in the Bouches-du-Rhone in 1830. Throughout his childhood and adolescence, he only heard Occitan spoken in the area where he lived. At the age of 12, after attending several schools, he went to the private school Dupay. There he met a young surveillant (a person responsible for maintaining discipline) Joseph Roumanille, who discovered him writing poetry in Occitan. This was the beginning of a life-long cooperation and friendship devoted to furthering the interests of Occitan.
Mistral obtained his baccalaureat at Nimes in 1847, with excellent marks in all subjects particularly Latin. A year on the family farm convinced him that farming was not the career for him. He then went to Aix-en Provence to study law. There he became familiar with the history of Provence and he regularly went to the theatres of the town. He read the works of the troubadours (poets of the 12th and 13th century who celebrated a courtly form of love in Occitan) in the Mejanes library. Graduating in 1851 he returned to Mallane.
POETIC WORKS AND DICTIONARY
Mistral was determined to bring about a revival of Occitan and to rehabilitate the language through the prestige of poetry. He used the term “langue provencale”rather than Occitan. Occitan has 6 dialects – provencal ( roughly equivalent to Mistral’s language), languedocien, limousin, auvergnat, vivaro-alpine and gascon. Languedocien is the dialect of our area and is very close to provencal, as the two dialects did not develop significant differences until the 16th century. Gascon is the most distinct, with some words beginning with H instead of F and others not having an R, where there is an R in the other dialects.
In 1853 Mistral started composing Mireio (Mireille), which was published in 1859 and is the acclaimed masterpiece of Occitan poetry. It is about the thwarted love of Vincent and Mireille. Mireille’s parents wish her to marry a prosperous landowner but she falls in love with a basket maker Vincent, who also loves her. After rejecting 3 rich suitors Mireille runs off to Sainte Marie de la Mer to pray to the patron saint of Provence to change her parents’ mind. Unfortunately she forgets to take a hat and dies of sun stroke in Vincent’s arms with her parents watching. Charles Gounod used the poem as the basis for his opera Mireille in 1864.
In 1867 Mistral published “Calendal”, which proclaimed the ardent desire of the provencal people for independence. Mistral spent the years 1878-86 compiling “Lou Tresor dou Felibritge” still the richest Occitan language dictionary and one of the most reliable for defining clearly the meaning of individual words. This is a bilingual Occitan-French dictionary in 2 volumes including the different dialects.
In 1904 Mistral received the Nobel Prize for Literature for his works as a whole. He succeeded in breathing renewed life into the Occitan language and his work reached the highest levels of epic poetry.
FELIBRIGE
21st May 1854 saw the founding of Felibrige by Mistral and six friends all committed to promoting Occitan. Their objective was to restore the language by giving it a uniform spelling and grammar - both lost through centuries of neglect. They did not regard it as sufficient to purify the language by writing magnificent poems ; it was also essential to reach out to ordinary people and to imbue them with the values of Occitan.
The name “Felibrige” comes from an old song – the prayer of Saint Anselm. It talks about “li set felibre de la lei” (the 7 doctors of the law”). The 7 founders wished to put into practice the new guidelines for poetry. These had been set out on “Li Prouvencalo”, a collection of the literary principles governing new Occitan poetry. Felibrige published an Almanac on a non-profit making basis. It was written entirely in Occitan and gave details of forthcoming events and festivals. It also had items about the history of Provence designed to teach the provencals about their past and to introduce them to Occitan literature. The first almanac had a print run of 500 and appeared in 1855.
Felibrige continues to operate today and to promote Occitan successfully. It runs a festival every year around the saint’s day of Saint Estelle, The festival is to be held in Aigues Mortes this year from 6 to 10th June. A celebration of the death and also the life and work of Frederic Mistral will be one of the highlights.
Gavin Porter gives an account of the battle of Muret and its consequences for the region of Occitania.
LOCAL HISTORY: THE BATTLE OF MURET 800 YEARS AGO IN 1213 ENDED ANY HOPE OF AN OCCITAN-CATALANSTATE DEVELOPING
GENERAL BACKGROUND
Dissatisfaction with the local Roman Catholic Church and the behaviour of its clergy and monks had led to the spread of catharism. The cathars believed in a world split between good and evil and in the transmigration of souls. Their doctrines were preached by ‘les bonhommes’ and had extensive support in the south of France.
The Roman Catholic Church engineered a number of Crusades to crush a movement it considered to be heresy. The general representing the king of France was Simon de Montfort an Englishman, who was count of Leicester and also the seigneur of Montfort-l’Amaury. He was not a man known to be merciful to his foes.
At the battle of Muret ,Simon de Montfort encountered the Occitan-Catalan forces led by Peter the 2nd of Aragon.
HOW THE OCCITANS LOST THE BATTLE
Defeat at Muret need never have occurred. It was due to strategic error - bad organisation and ill-chosen tactics. For the Occitan forces the battle began well with a bombardment of Muret allowing them to capture it without using too many forces. The French soldiers had to take refuge in the castle on the banks of the river Garonne.
At this moment, the Occitans and Catalans could have taken possession of the castle and slaughtered the whole garrison. However, Peter the 2nd of Aragon, who was commander of the armies, wanted to wait for the arrival of Simon de Montfort himself before attacking the castle. Covered with glory after his recent victory over the Moors at Las Navas de Toulouse, Peter hoped to win further renown by decisively defeating de Montfort in person.
Because the local nobles, Count Raymond the 6th of Toulouse and the Counts of Comminges and Foix, had placed themselves under Peter’s protection, they had no influence over Peter’s strategic decisions. Simon de Montfort arrived at the castle of Muret on 11 September with an army of 1,000 horsemen.
Peter had two options: to engage the French on the battlefield or to lay siege to the castle of Muret. The churchmen accompanying de Montfort tried to mediate between him and Peter. Peter, seeing this offer of mediation as a sign of weakness, chose the option of a pitched battle. This choice suited de Montfort, who had insufficient food to withstand a long siege.
De Montfort led his troops out of the castle on 12 September taking the Occitans by surprise. He attacked from the south and thus threw the lines of the Count of Foix and of Peter the 2nd into confusion. The 900 Toulouse soldiers serving Count Raymond V1, who had refused to take part in the battle because he disagreed with Peter’s tactics, fled in the disorder.
WHAT MIGHT HAVE BEEN
The vision of an Occitan-Catalan region which might have gradually developed, if there had been an Occitan victory, faded with this defeat.
The languages spoken by Occitans and by Catalans are very close and so the two peoples are closely related. A separate country, including Occitania north of the Pyrenees and Catalonia south of the Pyrenees, might have come into being with Occitan/Catalan as its national language. It was not to be.
Examination of maps of the areas now the south of France and the north of Spain highlights this change clearly. Maps dating from before the Crusades against the Cathars show an Occitan-Catalan region with the Pyrenees as a link between the Occitan and Catalan areas. The region stretched all the way from Saragossa to Barcelona and from Toulouse to Cahors and as far as Marseille with the Catalan territories in Provence.
After the Crusades, the lands belonging to the Count of Toulouse halved in size. More significantly the Pyrenees, instead of being a link between
the Occitan and Catalan territories, became a frontier. The French kings based in Paris now possessed a Mediterranean coast which they had not
previously had. James of Aragon, the son of Peter the 2nd, became preoccupied with fighting the Moors in Spain and took no interest in Occitan affairs.
MURET TODAY
Today Muret is a small town of about 24,000 inhabitants in Haute-Garonne situated beside the river Garonne. A couple of plaques commemorate the battle. It is re-enacted with the participants dressed in traditional costumes every 10 years.
LOCAL HISTORY: REVOLTS AGAINST TAX COLLECTION IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY - GABELOUS ET CROQUANTS
Gavin Porter gives an account of popular uprisings against high taxation in the first half of the seventeenth century and of the punishments meted out to ringleaders.
GENERAL BACKGROUND
Recent protests in Britanny have forced the current French Government to ‘suspend’ the introduction of an ecology tax on lorries using secondary roads (as opposed to motorways). Protest against taxes is nothing new in France. There was a series of revolts against tax and tax collectors in our region in the early 17th century.
At that time Cardinal Richelieu, Louis X111’s Chief Minister, needed money to finance wars. Because of this he altered the tax status of the regions of the country south of the river Loire (these were known as ‘provinces reputees etrangeres’). Instead of being controlled by local assemblies of nobility, clergy and the third estate (those not clergy or nobility), tax collection became the responsibility of officials called gabeleurs or gabelous. These officials were appointed by the king and this system enabled more money to be raised.
Originally gabelous were collectors of the gabelle – a tax on salt an important commodity in those days. Over time the word gabelou was applied to tax collectors in general.
REVOLT IN QUERCY
Twenty-five years of revolts in both countryside and towns followed the introduction of the new tax collection system. In Quercy in 1624, protestors seized vines and fruit trees which had been collected by the tax authorities and killed tax collectors. The insurrection of 1,500 farmers was led by Barrau, a nobleman, and Douat, a fortune teller. They besieged Cahors and Figeac and demanded that the tax collectors be handed over to them. The Governor of Quercy, the Marechal de Themines, suppressed the uprising with the king’s troops. Barrau was hanged at Gramat and Douat beheaded at Figeac. Clearly his fortune telling abilities did not include accurately predicting his own fate.
REVOLT IN THE DORDOGNE
The word Croquants originally described the inhabitants of Croq a parish in the territory of the viscount of Turenne in Limousin. The people of Croq were the first to take up arms in an insurrection in Limousin in 1594. Other countrymen followed their example and those insurgents became known as Croquants. The word was subsequently used to describe insurgents generally.
In 1636 what was called the Guerre des Croquants broke out. Revolts against the tax collectors occurred in Quercy, Perigord, Rouerge, Auvergne, Gascony and Couserans. At Sainte-Foy-la Grande representatives of the three social classes (nobility, bourgeoisie and workers) united to direct the uprising. They were Jean de Fette a nobleman, Leonard Bonami a lawyer and Le Turc a workman. Eymet and Bergerac supported them. 60,000 farmers assembled near Perigeux, formed an army and elected La Motte as commander. The troops were ordered not to pillage. A blade of straw in your hat was the sign of commitment to the cause. (Wearing a red beret is today’s sign of commitment in Brittany.) Their demands to the Government were as follows:
i) an end to unfair taxes. and to the exactions of royal troops.
ii) tax autonomy for Perigord.
iii) repayment by tax collectors of taxes levied with interest on top.
On 13 May 1637, the inhabitants of Bergerac assisted the Croquants to take possession of the town. However, in June the royal army under the command of La Valette captured Eymet. There were over 10,000 deaths. Then Bergerac was besieged. A general amnesty was negotiated with La Valette allowing all the insurgents to leave the town.
REVOLT IN VILLEFRANCHE
In May 1643 merchants and craftsmen assembled in the roads of Villefranche led by the saddler Bernard Calmets, nicknamed La Fourque. On 3 June they were joined by 1,200 armed men from the surrounding area who entered the town banging drums and blowing trumpets. These men were commanded by Jean Petit of Montpezat-de-Quercy and by a mason from Roussenac Guilhem Brasc nicknamed La Paille.
Unfortunately they did not plan their revolt successfully and it was crushed. The ringleaders were arrested. La Fourque was executed at Najac on 8 October along with Vernhes, a weaver, and Ferriere, a workman. Other rebels were tortured at Villefranche in front of a large crowd of people to teach the locals a lesson. Guinot de Carjarc, a cobbler, Lariviere a wool carder (someone who combs wool before it’s spun) and two workman Lapeze and Portara were hung in front of the church. Jean Petit and La Paille were torn limb from limb on the wheel. The heads of these last two were cut off and hung on the gates of the town – a practice borrowed from the Celts who once inhabited France.
END OF TAX AUTONOMY
Introducing ‘quadrillage’ enabled the royal authorities to abolish taxation autonomy once and for all in the ‘provinces reputees etrangeres.’ Quadrillage was a system of dividing a region into a number of administrative units and placing each unit under military control. This enabled the king to tax people heavily, to destroy any traces of former communal liberties and to repress any challenge to the new political and social order.
Of Poppies and Bleuets
The month of November brings the annual commemoration of the Armistice, which brought an end to the First World War. This war officially ended on the eleventh hour, of the eleventh day, of the eleventh month of 1918, and it is a long established custom to hold a simple ceremony of remembrance at the local village monument, dedicated to those who died in that war and succeeding wars.
It is also a custom amongst people of our generation to wear a red poppy before and during that day; an act by which we acknowledge the sacrifices made by those who have endured the perils of war for our safety. We think of it as a peculiarly British custom, but it has its origins in a multinational set of events, which I would like to tell you about in this article. I also would like to tell you something about its French equivalent, the bleuet, or cornflower emblem.
It had been noted since Napoleonic times at least that, when fallen soldiers were buried in mass graves in chalky or limestone soil, poppies would quite often start to grow over these sites. The disturbance of the calcareous subsoil to the ground surface released just the right chemicals for the poppy seeds to germinate and grow, leading to a carpet of flowers in the fullness of time.
The same phenomenon was noted in the First World War, where the earth on the front lines was further disturbed by the massive shell bombardments from all sides.
Our story really begins with John McCrae, a Canadian major who was a professor of medicine in civilian life, and who was appointed to the post of surgeon to the 1st royal artillery brigade of the Canadian Army on the Western front. He served near the Ypres salient, and witnessed the first gas attacks of the war on Canadian troops. On the 2nd May 1915 his friend, lieutenant Alexis Helmer, was killed by shellfire. At the funeral, John noted that poppies had already started to grow amongst the adjacent graves. So moved was he by the loss of his friend that he wrote and dedicated a poem to his friend the next day. It is possibly one of the most famous poems of that war, titled: 'In Flanders Field' and I have included it at the end of this article. For now, the first few lines tell it all:
"In Flanders field the poppies grow, amongst the crosses, row on row"
In 1918 John McRae succumbed to pneumonia and was buried with due honours at Wimereaux cemetery in northern France.
Two days before the Armistice, his poem was read by a young American lady working with the YMCA in the United States. She was Moina Belle Michael, and she was so moved by it that she composed another poem as a response, titled 'We shall keep the Faith', and which contains the lines:
'And now the torch and poppy red,
We wear in honor of the dead'
More important, she fashioned a poppy and wore it every day from then on. In 1920, a French lady, Mme Anna Guérin, a member of the YMCA in France, met Moina in the USA. Shewas so impressed by the story that she returned to France and founded the association «The American and French Children's League » which sold, at the anniversary of each Armistice, cloth poppies: the proceeds of which were used to aid the children in the countries ravaged by the great war.
In 1921, Field Marshall Douglas Haig, commander of the British armies in France and Belgium, learned of Mme Guérin's initiative. As a result, he encouraged the creation of the British Poppy Day Appeal, with the objective of raising funds to aid needy and invalid ex combatants. The same year, Mme Guerin, in the course of a visit to Canada, succeeded in convincing the Association of the Ancient Combatants of Canada of the Great War to adopt the poppy as a symbol of remembrance, and as a source of funds.
Up until 1922, all poppies were made by Mme Guérin's association: thereafter, each country produced and sold its own brand. The first poppy was bought in London a few seconds after midnight of the launch date. From that moment it was a seller's market: the poppies were on sale at an official price of three pence but, before breakfast, single petals were selling at Smithfield Market in London for £5.
The bleuet is the French equivalent to the poppy. it is the humble blue cornflower, and it flourished on the field of battle much as did the poppy. Its creation preceded that of the poppy: this emblem was established in 1916 by a Mme Suzanne Lenhardt, nurse-major at themilitary hospital of the Invalides and Mme Charlotte Malleterre. The former was the widow of a captain of the Colonial Infantry who was killed in 1915, the latter the daughter of a French general. The two were deeply moved by the suffering of the wounded soldiers in their charge, and sought to reintegrate them into society where practical. They established small workshops where the disabled soldiers produced the bleuets which were initially made out of cloth and paper. These emblems were sold to the public, and the money raised was paid to the soldiers.
On the 15 September 1920, Louis Fontenaille, president of the Mutilés de France,proposed in a report to the Fédération Interalliée des Anciens Combattants at Brussels thatthe Bleuet de France should remain forever the symbolic flower of the « Morts pour la France ».
In 1928, the President of the Republic, Gaston Doumergue, granted his patronage to the Bleuet de France. The sales progressively increased throughout the country, with the legend « the Nation wants to declare its recognition and assistance to those men who have sacrificed their youth to the defence of France » For the commemoration of the 11 November 1934, 128,000 flowers were sold.
From 1935, the French state made official the sale of the Bleuet de France throughout the country for the Armistice commemoration.
In 1957, a second day was authorised for the wearing of the bleuet. That is the 8th May, the anniversary of the surrender of German forces at the end of the European theatre of war in 1945.
The term 'bleuets' was also applied by the old French soldiers (poilus) to their own fresh troops who appeared on the front line in 1915 in the new uniform of the day, which was made from a pale sky blue cloth - thankfully a much less conspicuous colour than the red woolentrousers worn by the old hands up till then.
Two minutes silence is normally observed at 11 am on the 11th November, which gives us a chance to remember those who have died in wars and to reflect on the impact of war on our lives and the lives of others.
Should you wish to purchase poppies or poppy wreaths, you can contact Richard 0'Neill, of the Bordeaux & SW France branch of the Royal British Legion, atrichardoneill489@gmail.com.
In Flanders Field
In Flanders' Fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row, That mark our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing fly Scarce heard amidst the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved, and now we lie in Flanders' fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe,
To you from failing hands we throw The torch - be yours to hold it high; If ye break faith with us who die, We shall not sleep though poppies grow In Flanders' fields. |
Dans les Champs de Flandres
Dans les champs de Flandres, les coquelicots
Sont parsemés de lot en lot Auprès des croix ; et dans l'espace Les alouettes devenues lasses Mêlent leurs chants au sifflement des obusiers.
Nous sommes morts,
Nous qui songions la veille encor' À nos parents, à nos amis, C'est nous qui reposons ici, Dans les champs de Flandres.
À vous jeunes désabusés,
À vous de porter l'oriflamme
Et de garder au fond de l'âme Le goût de vivre en liberté. Acceptez le défi, sinon Les coquelicots se faneront Dans les champs de Flandres. |
Chrysanthemums and Toussaints by Ross Jenkins
All British people who live permanently in this lovely area of France will be aware that most florists, garden centres and supermarkets will shortly start stocking up on chrysanthemum flowers and potted plants for the end of the month. Most of us might assume that it is something to do with the celebration of all saints day on the 1st November, but this is not so, and I hope that this short article might make things clearer.
The actual event celebrated by the Roman Catholic church is the 'Commemoration des fidèles defunts', or the remembrance of the faithful dead, if one translates the words directly. In particular, it is to remember those who have died in the preceding year. If one attends mass that day, one is granted absolution from minor sins that may have been committed up to that time, but the key activity for many is a visit to the cemetery to tidy up the family tombs and to lay fresh flowers there.
It occurs on the 2nd November, but it is not a public holiday, whereas the Fête of Toussaints is. Therefore, when the latterfête occurs during the week, it is usual for families to then pay a visit to the local cemeteries where their loved ones are interred. This perhaps cause a little confusion as to the purpose of the two feast days.
The origin of Toussaints is reasonably welll known. In the fourth century CE, the Greek Orthodox church decided to commemorate the deaths of Christian martyrs: after the apostles, these matryrs formed the next set of saints, as they had died for their faith. To this day, this fête is celebrated on the first Sunday after Pentecost by that church. In the seventh century, the Roman Catholic church, under the papacy of Pope Boniface IV, converted the Pantheon in Rome to a church dedicated to St Mary of the Martyrs, and it is from this time that the fête de Toussaints can be traced: originally held inMay, but transferred to the 1st November by Pope Gregory in 830 for administrative reasons, or maybe to combat the evil influences of Hallowe'en. He also decided that this event should be celebrated world wide, rather than in just what was then the Italian states.
The commemoration of the dead has its homologue in many other faiths, pagan as well as Christian. The Church had a well established practice of replacing pagan celebrations with more appropriate ones, and it is believed that the 2nd November was when the ancient Celtic festival of Samain was held (which disappeared after the suppression of the Druidic cults) More interesting is the theory that the date was set to commemorate the loss of human life in the great flood that Noah and his family survived. According to Genesis 7:11 the deluge began on the 17th day of the second month of theHebrew calendar, or the beginning of November in our time. It was around the year 1000 CE that Odilon, the Abbot of Cluny, decreed that all monasteries under his direction should perform a mass specifically for the souls of the dead on the 2nd November, and the practice grew from there.
But why chrysanthemums? The French custom of lighting candles and leaving flowers at the family tombs can be traced to the nineteenth century, but it was after the first world war, to celebrate Armistice day, that these flowers came into almost universal use. The best ones are the autumn chrysanthemums, or pomponnettes: they flower late, remain fresh and attractive for a considerable time after they are cut, and they can survive a light frost. Since Armistice day is so close to the 2nd November, it gradually became the custom to place them on tombs on the earlier date, and they would still be presentable for the later event.
And should you think that this is an obsolescent practice, I can tell you that, in 2010, 21,3 million pots of chrysanthemums were sold in France and Belgium at the end of October/beginning of November.
